Text ( read and translate)

Употребление слов a few, a little; many, much, a lot of

The Primitive Community

The history of mankind begins with the primitive community. The appearance of new tools and new methods of labour led to the replacement of the human herd

by the clan. Several clans, that is communities, or related individuals formed a tribe. Both the tribe and the clan were governed by elders who were chosen for their life experience and knowledge. The human herd and the clan were two consecutive stages in the development of primitive society.

The related members of the clan jointly owned their hunting grounds and the lands which they tilled. They lived and worked together, and consumed in common the products of their labour. Since they lived together in groups, they could provide themselves with food and keep fires burning.

The primitive human herd possesses the simplest tools: a hand-axe, a digging stock and a wooden club. Thousands of years passed before stone tools were replaced by those made of metal (bronze, iron). When people invented the harpoon, they took up fishing. The invention of bows and arrows helped to start cattle-breeding, and axes made it possible to go over to farming.
In primitive society there was no private property, therefore there were no classes and no exploitation - that is, appropriation by the rich of the fruits of other men's labour. Since there were no classes, there was no state system, that is no armed forces, no prisons, no courts, no overseers, no government bodies.

2 a) Consult the text and find the English equivalents of the following:

Первобытная община, первобытное общество, человеческое стадо, род, племя, образовать племя, старейшины, орудия труда (металлические, бронзовые, железные, каменные), дубинка, лук, топор, стрела, мотыга, управлять, заниматься (охотой, рыбной ловлей, сельским хозяйством, разведением скота), выбирать, владеть, обеспечивать, изобретать, заменять, еда, огонь, совместно, сообща.

2 b) Sum up the contents of the text by answering the following questions.

1. What does the history of mankind begin with?
2. What led to the replacement of the human herd by the clan? 3. Who governed the clan?
4. What tools had the people?
5. What was their main occupation?
6. What was the structure of primitive society?

Урок 3. Времена группы Continuous. Английская грамматика

Причастие в английском: форма и употребление